Ch. 12
Learning & Development
BASK definition: learning and development activities enhance the KSAOs and competencies of the workforce to meet the organization's current and future business needs.
BASK key concepts: needs analysis; program design (ADDIE, SAM, action mapping, Bloom's taxonomy, generative AI); adult learning theories; L&D approaches and techniques; developmental assessments; goal setting; career development; knowledge sharing; leadership development; coaching and mentoring; L&D technologies.
Needs analysis (needs assessment)
A needs analysis identifies the gap between current and desired performance and determines whether training is the right solution. Problems caused by motivation, tools or processes are not solved by training.
| Level / type | Question it answers |
|---|---|
| Organizational analysis | Where in the organization is training needed, given the strategy, goals, resources and climate? |
| Task (job) analysis | What KSAs does the job require? |
| Person (individual) analysis | Who needs training, and what specific gaps do they have? |
| Training needs analysis | What training would close the gaps? |
| Cost-benefit analysis | Is the training worth its cost? |
Techniques: surveys, observation, interviews, focus groups, performance data, skills assessments and job analysis.
Instructional design models
ADDIE is the most widely used model:
- Analysis: needs assessment, audience, objectives and constraints
- Design: learning objectives, content outline, delivery method and evaluation plan
- Development: create the materials and pilot test them
- Implementation: deliver the training, including logistics and trainer preparation
- Evaluation: measure effectiveness (formative evaluation during development, summative evaluation after delivery)
Other models:
- Successive Approximation Model (SAM): an agile, iterative alternative to ADDIE. It uses rapid prototypes and repeated cycles of design, development and evaluation.
- Action mapping (Cathy Moore): start from a measurable business goal, identify what people must do to reach it, design realistic practice activities, then add only the information that is essential. It avoids information dumps.
- Bloom's taxonomy: a hierarchy of learning objectives. The revised order, from lowest to highest, is: remember → understand → apply → analyze → evaluate → create. It is used to write learning objectives with action verbs.
- Generative AI can draft content, quizzes and scenarios. Review its output for accuracy and bias.
Adult learning theory
Malcolm Knowles's andragogy describes how adults learn:
- Adults need to know why they are learning something.
- They are self-directed and want control over their learning.
- They bring experience, which is a resource for learning.
- They are ready to learn what helps with real-life tasks.
- They are problem-centered, not subject-centered.
- They are mostly internally motivated.
Other theories and models in the BASK:
| Model | Description |
|---|---|
| 70-20-10 model | About 70% of development comes from on-the-job experience, 20% from relationships (coaching, mentoring, feedback) and 10% from formal training |
| VAK learning styles | Visual (seeing), auditory (hearing) and kinesthetic (doing). Research doesn't support matching instruction to a person's preferred style, but using varied methods helps everyone. |
| "Learning everywhere" model | Learning happens continuously, in many settings and formats, not just in classrooms |
| Experiential learning (David Kolb) | A cycle of concrete experience → reflective observation → abstract conceptualization → active experimentation |
| Spaced repetition / spacing effect | Reviewing material over spaced intervals improves retention. This is how you should study for the exam. |
L&D delivery approaches (BASK)
| Approach | Description |
|---|---|
| E-learning | Electronically delivered training, such as online courses |
| Just-in-time learning | Learning delivered at the moment of need, such as a job aid or quick video |
| Microlearning | Short, focused learning units of a few minutes |
| Blended learning | A mix of methods, such as online modules plus classroom sessions |
| Self-paced / self-directed learning | The learner controls the timing and the path |
| Experiential learning | Learning by doing: simulations, projects, rotations |
| Peer-to-peer training | Employees teach each other |
| Webinars, podcasts, infographics | Flexible, scalable formats |
| Gamification | Game elements (points, badges, leaderboards) to boost engagement |
| On-the-job training (OJT) | Training at the work site while doing the job |
| Rotational programs | Structured rotations through departments |
| Vestibule training | Training on equipment in a simulated setting away from the actual job |
Evaluating training: Kirkpatrick's four levels
| Level | Measures | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Reaction | Did participants like the training? | End-of-course "smile sheet" survey |
| 2. Learning | Did they gain the knowledge or skills? | Pre-test and post-test, skills demonstration |
| 3. Behavior | Do they apply it on the job? | Manager observation 60–90 days later |
| 4. Results | Did it affect business outcomes? | Fewer errors, higher sales, fewer injuries |
The Phillips ROI model adds a Level 5: ROI, which compares the monetary benefits with the training costs.
★ Each level is harder to measure than the one before but more valuable to the business. Most organizations stop at Levels 1–2.
Transfer of training means applying learning on the job. It is strengthened by manager support, opportunities to practice and follow-up reinforcement.
Developmental assessments (BASK)
These include 360-degree assessments, simulations, high-potential (HiPo) assessments, personality assessments, skills and competency assessments, and adaptive testing (computerized tests that adjust their difficulty based on the person's answers).
Competency assessment options: self-assessment, manager assessment, competency-based interviews, skills gap analysis, 360-degree assessment (supervisor, peers, subordinates, customers), 180-degree assessment (usually supervisor and peers, not subordinates) and assessment centers.
Goal setting and individual development plans (IDPs)
An individual development plan (IDP) is a written plan, created by the employee and manager together, that sets out development goals, the activities to reach them, the resources needed and timelines. Use SMART goals.
Career development
Career development is progression through a series of employment stages, each with its own issues, themes and tasks.
| Tool | Description |
|---|---|
| Career pathing | A clear outline of how to move from one's current position to a desired one |
| Career mapping | Visual tools showing possible career paths and moves |
| Dual career ladder | Two parallel advancement paths: a managerial track and a technical or professional track with equal status and pay potential. It keeps technical experts from having to become managers in order to advance. |
| Mentoring | A longer-term relationship in which an experienced person guides another's development. It can be formal or informal. Reverse mentoring means a junior employee mentors a senior one. |
| Coaching | Focused, interactive guidance to improve specific on-the-job performance or behavior. It usually lasts a defined period. |
| Cross-training | Training employees to perform other jobs |
| Job rotation / stretch assignments | Developmental moves and challenging assignments beyond the person's current abilities |
| Apprenticeship | Structured on-the-job training combined with related instruction, usually for skilled trades |
| Job enlargement / expansion | Broadening the scope of a job for growth |
| Internal mobility | Promotions, transfers, lateral moves and even demotions into a better-fitting role |
Coaching vs. mentoring: coaching is performance-focused, often short-term, with specific objectives. It can be done by the manager or an external coach (executive coaching). Mentoring is career and relationship focused, longer-term, and usually done by someone other than the person's direct manager.
Knowledge sharing and management
Techniques (BASK): knowledge maps (visual guides to where knowledge and experts are located in the organization) and knowledge cafés (informal, conversational sessions for sharing insights). Others include communities of practice, wikis, mentoring, after-action reviews and shadowing.
Two kinds of knowledge: explicit knowledge can be documented, such as manuals. Tacit knowledge is in people's heads and comes from experience. Tacit knowledge is harder to transfer and is lost when people leave, which is why knowledge transfer matters in succession planning.
Learning organization (Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline)
A learning organization continually expands its capacity to create the results it wants. Senge's five disciplines:
- Personal mastery: individuals' commitment to lifelong learning
- Mental models: surfacing and challenging deeply held assumptions
- Shared vision: a common picture of the future that builds commitment
- Team learning: dialogue and thinking together
- Systems thinking: the "fifth discipline" that integrates the other four
Leadership development
Leadership development uses high-potential (HiPo) development programs, stretch assignments, coaching, mentoring, action learning, rotations and leadership training. Note the difference between leadership development (influencing people toward a vision) and manager development (managing people and resources to deliver results).
L&D technologies (BASK)
These include the learning management system (LMS), which hosts, delivers, tracks and reports training; virtual reality (fully immersive simulations, for example of safety procedures); augmented reality (digital information overlaid on the real world); adaptive learning platforms; content generation and generative AI; digital assistants; assistive technology (for accessibility); and training analytics.
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